Moses. [Heb. and Aramaic, Mosheh, "one drawn out," probably based on the Egyptian ms or msw, "child," "son," "the one born of." The Egyptians incorporated the word msw, "mose," into royal names such as Ahmose, "the one born of (the moon god) Ah"; Kamose, "the one born of the (deified soul) Ka"; Thutmose, "the one born of (the scribal god) Thoth"; and the common name Ramose (later Ramses), "the one born of (the sun-god) Ra." In everyday life, these names were often abbreviated to "Mose." Similarly, the name Pharaoh's daughter gave Moses may originally have included the name of some Egyptian deity. Since the Egyptians worshiped the Nile, which they deified as "Hapi" (Hpy) and commonly called Itrw, later Irw, the princess may have named Moses Hapimose or Irumose, either of which would mean, "the one born of (or "drawn out of") the Nile." When Moses "refused to be called the son of Pharaoh's daughter" (Heb 11:24), he would naturally drop the reference to an Egyptian deity.]

The deliverer of the Hebrew people from Egyptian bondage, their leader through the wilderness wandering, their great lawgiver, and the author of the Pentateuch.

Moses spent the first 40 years of his life quite likely under the 18th dynasty kings: Thutmose I (c. 1542 - c. 1524 b.c.), and Thutmose II (c. 1524 - c. 1504 b.c.), and Queen Hatshepsut (c. 1504 - c. 1486 b.c.), a daughter of Thutmose I and on the basis of the chronology here suggested doubtless the "daughter of Pharaoh" referred to in Ex 2:5-10. In that case, Moses would have witnessed the rise of Egypt to the height of its political power. Under Thutmose III, whose sole reign (c. 1486 - c. 1450 b.c.) would have fallen in the 40 years during which Moses sojourned in Midian, the Egyptian Empire extended from the Abyssinian highlands in the south to the Euphrates in the north-east. A widespread commerce developed, and riches flowed from foreign lands to support the great projects of the Pharaohs. Cultural life had reached a high level, craftsmanship and architecture were in an advanced state, and astronomy, mathematics, and medical science flourished. Egypt had every reason to boast of its prowess as the most powerful and civilised nation of its time.

Moses was the son of Amram and Jochebed, and a descendant of Levi in the 4th generation (Ex 6:16-20), of the family of Kohath (vs. 18-20). His brother Aaron was 3 years older than he (ch 7:7), and he had an older sister, Miriam (ch 15:20; cf. ch 2:6, 7). At Moses' birth, the children of Israel had been in Egypt about 135 years (see Gen 12:4; 21:5; 25:26; 47:9; Deut 2:7; 34:7; Acts 7:30; cf. Ex 7:7; 12:40, 41; Gal 3:16, 17). Jacob had been dead for about 118 years (Gen 47:28), and Joseph for about 64 years (ch 50:22; cf. chs 41:46, 47, 54; 45:6; 47:9). On the basis of a 1445 b.c. exodus, Moses was born about 1525 b.c. (cf. Ex 7:7). On this same basis, when the Hebrews entered Egypt, the racially related and friendly Hyksos kings ruled the land. However, early in the 16th cent., some 50 or 60 years prior to Moses' birth, the Hyksos were expelled by a native Egyptian dynasty, the 17th. About 1590 b.c., the powerful 18th dynasty arose, one of whose early kings, perhaps Ahmose or Amenhotep I, was probably the "new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph" mentioned in Ex 1:8. The Hebrews had multiplied rapidly until "the land was filled with them" and they had become "more and mightier" than the Egyptians, or at least the latter so claimed (ch 1:7-9). Because the Hebrews were numerically strong, and because the Egyptians urgently needed cheap labour for their vast building projects, it is little wonder that the kings of this new dynasty instituted a policy of keeping them in subjection at forced labour (vs. 10-14). How long prior to Moses' birth the Hebrews were set to work building the "treasure cities, Pithom and Raamses" (v 11) and were made to "serve with rigour" (vs. 12-14) is not known. But the more the Egyptians oppressed them, "the more they multiplied and grew" (Ex 1:12), and efforts to check the rapid increase in population proved wholly ineffective. At first, the Egyptians proposed to grind them down by making their lives "bitter with hard bondage" (v 14), but when this proved unavailing, they ordered the Hebrew midwives to kill all male children born to the Hebrews (vs. 15, 16). However, the midwives neglected to carry out Pharaoh's orders, giving as their excuse that Hebrew women were more vigorous than Egyptian women and did not need the services of the midwives (v 19). Pharaoh then ordered his own people to take the matter of exterminating the Hebrew male children into their own hands by drowning them in the Nile (v 22). But in view of the many able-bodied men among the Hebrews 80 years later at the Exodus, it would seem that this cruel requirement could not have continued long in force.

At his birth, Moses' parents recognised him to be "a goodly child" (Ex 2:2). Their efforts to preserve Moses alive are referred to in Heb 11:23 as an act of faith, implying perhaps an awareness on their part that God had destined him for an important role and would intervene to preserve his life. By putting Moses in an ark of bulrushes and placing him on the bosom of the Nile, Jochebed was complying with the letter of the law that required male children to be offered in sacrifice to the Nile, which the Egyptians worshiped as a god, supposing that its waters had power to impart fertility and guarantee long life. The visit of Pharaoh's daughter to the river "to wash herself" (Ex 2:5) may have been a ritual ablution designed to secure these supposed benefits for herself. The appearance of Moses floating in his little ark of bulrushes as if he were a gift from the Nile god, in answer to her prayers, apparently impressed her as a happy omen. The princess took the child as her own, hiring his own mother as his nurse.

Moses' home training inculcated in him a love for God and some understanding of his life mission (cf. Acts 7:25). Under royal Egyptian tutors and doubtless as a royal prince and heir presumptive to the throne, Moses was instructed in "all the wisdom of the Egyptians" (v 22). From the priests he doubtless mastered Egyptian letters, literature, science, and religion; from army commanders, skill in military leadership, and from other royal officials a knowledge of laws and civil administration. Some have suggested that Moses may have led some military expeditions into foreign lands. As the heir presumptive, he was doubtless popular at court, as well as with the army and the common people. His outward appearance, his dress, his speech, his behaviour, and his culture may have been completely Egyptian, but he never became an Egyptian at heart. In character, religion, and loyalty he continued to be a Hebrew, as is evident from the incidents related in Ex 2:11-13 (cf. Heb 11:24, 25).

When he was 40 (Acts 7:23)—c. 1485 b.c.—Moses knew that the time had come when he must choose between his Hebrew faith and the throne of Egypt. Inbred loyalty to God (Heb 11:24-26) and an awareness of God's purpose for his life (Acts 7:25) led Moses to cast his lot with his own people and "to suffer affliction" with them rather than "enjoy the pleasures of sin for a season" (Heb 11:25). The fact that he had refused to adopt the Egyptian religion had doubtless aroused misgivings in the minds of his benefactors. Perhaps it was in fear that he might seize the throne, that the priests of Amon in a temple revolution several years earlier had placed on the throne an illegitimate son of Thutmose II, Hatshepsut's deceased husband, and forced Hatshepsut to accept this young prince as coregent. The new king adopted the throne name of his father and is known in history as Thutmose III. Under such circumstances he would have especially hated Moses, in whom he would see his greatest rival, and thus could have hastened Moses' decision to throw in his lot with his despised countrymen and to attempt to liberate them from Egyptian oppression. Acting rashly, Moses slew an (Ex 2:11, 12), Egyptian taskmaster (Ex 2:11, 12), and by this foolish act he played into the hands of his enemies, perhaps especially Thutmose III, who now would have a legitimate reason to bring Moses to trial and to destroy him. It is quite possible that these were the circumstances that led Moses to flee from Egypt and to find refuge in the land of Midian to the east (v 15).

Since the Midianites were descendants of Abraham by Keturah (Gen 25:1, 2), Moses was with relatives during his 40 years of sojourn, some of whom still worshiped the true God. Among them was Jethro, a priest of the true God (cf. Ex 18:1, 12, 23). Jethro was also called Reuel (ch 2:16-18), which means "friend of God." Jethro's hospitable reception led Moses to enter his service, and in course of time his daughter Zipporah became Moses' wife (vs. 18-21). Jethro was a man of sound judgement, as is evident from the counsel he later gave his son-in-law (ch 18:12-27). During his 40 years in the lower Sinai Peninsula, Moses doubtless became familiar with the geography, resources, and climate of that desert region. Leading Jethro's flocks amid the solemn grandeur of the mountains, he had ample time for reflection upon his past experiences. The 90th psalm, which is attributed to Moses, reflects his thoughts, perhaps toward the close of his sojourn in Midian. If so, the following interpretation seems appropriate: The opening verses of this psalm seem to mirror the mountain solitudes of Sinai and the majesty of God, in contrast with human frailty in general and the great mistakes of his own life (vs. 7, 8). Knowing the role Providence had marked out for him (Acts 7:25), Moses doubtless reflected that his impetuous act in slaying the Egyptian had frustrated God's purpose and thwarted the divine plan for his life. He had already passed the mark of "threescore years and ten" and was approaching "fourscore years" (Ps 90:9, 10), but with his great disappointment in mind, he prayed that God would teach him to "number" his days that he might apply his heart unto wisdom (v 12). He still had faith in the promises of God to the fathers and hoped for their fulfilment. His thoughts then turned to his suffering brethren in the land of Egypt (vs. 13, 14) and he prayed for their deliverance (vs. 15, 16). Finally, he pleads with God that the work of his own hands may be established, that his life may not have been altogether in vain (v 17). It was probably about the time of these reflections that God met Moses at the burning bush and commissioned him to return to Egypt to liberate the Hebrews (Ex 3:1-10). Remembering the threat to his own life and sensing his insufficiency for the task (v 11), fearful also that his own people would not accept him and doubtful of his ability to persuade Pharaoh to let Israel go, Moses hesitated to accept the call (vs. 11, 13; ch 4:1). But God patiently disposed of these seeming difficulties one by one, and Moses unwillingly acquiesced (vs. 1-19). On the way back to Egypt, he met Aaron, whom God had sent out into the wilderness to welcome him, and together they returned to Egypt and met with the elders of Israel (vs. 20-31) before approaching the Pharaoh himself (this would have been Amenhotep II according to the chronology suggested above). Their first audience with Pharaoh (ch 5:1-3) only made the lot of the Hebrews more bitter than it had been before (vs. 4-19). Ten plagues fell before Pharaoh changed his mind. With the last of the 10, the death of the firstborn, Pharaoh summoned Moses by night and finally ordered the Hebrews to leave Egypt (ch 12:29-32).

Under divine guidance, Moses led Israel forth from the land of their servitude (Ex 13:17-22). After a series of crises and providential deliverances, Moses and the Hebrew people arrived at Mount Sinai (ch 19:1, 2).

On the mount, Moses received directly from God instructions for the establishment of the Hebrew nation as a theocracy (Ex 24:9-11; 33:11, 17-23; 34:5-29; etc.), including the basic law of the Ten Commandments, which were also spoken audibly to the entire congregation (ch 20:1-18) and later inscribed upon 2 tables of stone and preserved in the ark (ch 31:18; 34:1-4; Deut 10:1-5). As spokesman for God, Moses led the people into the covenant relationship which constituted a theocracy (Ex 19:5-8; 24:3-8). God then summoned Moses to meet with Him in the mount (ch 24:12), where He revealed complete plans for the erection of the tabernacle, which was to be His dwelling place as their king (chs 25-31), and at the same time also gave him the 2 tables of the law (ch 31:18). In Moses' absence, the people had set up a golden calf, which they were worshipping when Moses returned (ch 32:1-6). Seeing their idolatry, Moses broke the 2 tables of stone (vs. 15-19). The Lord had revealed Israel's idolatry to Moses and had proposed to reject Israel and to carry out His purposes through him (vs. 7-10), but Moses proved his stature as a leader by graciously interceding in Israel's behalf, and God spared them (vs. 11-14). After the people had been duly punished (vs. 30-35), Moses once more besought the Lord, who promised, "My presence shall go with thee, and I will give thee rest" (ch 33:12-17). Upon his own request and as a token of God's presence with them, Moses was granted a vision of the divine glory (chs 33:17 to 34:9). During a second 40 days in the mount (ch 34:1, 2, 28; Deut 9:18), Moses received further instructions for the government of Israel and the 2nd tables of stone (Ex 34). Upon his descent to camp, his face was radiant with divine glory, and the people feared to approach him (vs. 29-35). During the remaining months at Sinai, the tabernacle was constructed (chs 36-39), and Moses wrote out the instructions God had given him, possibly at this time.

After about a year at Mount Sinai, during which Israel had been constituted a nation, its laws codified, the sanctuary had been erected and its services instituted, Israel set out for Canaan (Num 10:11-13). A short time later, Miriam and Aaron challenged Moses' leadership (ch 12:1, 2), but the Lord signally vindicated Moses as His appointed spokesman by temporarily inflicting leprosy upon Miriam (vs. 4-15). At Kadesh, because of a discouraging report on the land of Canaan, the people rebelled against Moses and proposed to return to Egypt (ch 14:1-4). This was the 10th rebellion since the departure from Egypt (v 22). Because of their failure, the men of that generation were condemned to die in the wilderness (vs. 29-35), and for the next 38 years (Deut 2:14), the people encamped at various places in the vicinity of Kadeshbarnea and the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqabah. At Kadesh, nearly 38 years later Moses and Aaron sinned, impetuously striking a rock contrary to God's instructions, thereby marring the lesson its miraculous waters were designed to teach. As a result, they were denied the privilege of conducting Israel into the Promised Land (Num 20:7-12). Moses led Israel around the land of Edom in the conquest of Transjordan (vs. 14-21), and finally to the last encampment at Shittim, across the Jordan River from Jericho (cf. chs 22:1; 25:1). While encamped there, Moses delivered a series of orations outlining God's providences over the past 40 years, pointing out lessons from these experiences, and repeating the laws God has revealed to him for the people. These 4 orations are recorded in the book of Deuteronomy. During the encampment at Shittim, Moses ordained Joshua as his successor (Num 27:18-23; Deut 1:38), and shortly before his death, took Joshua to the tabernacle to receive his charge from the Lord (Deut 31:14, 23). At the Lord's direction, Moses then ascended Mount Nebo, where he viewed the Promised Land and died at the age of 120 years (Deut 32:48-52; Deut 34:7). God buried him nearby (v 6).

Moses' great literary ability is evident from the quantity and great variety of his writings. In Genesis, he recounted the history of the world from Creation to the death of Joseph. In Exodus and in parts of Numbers and Deuteronomy, he preserved a record of the exodus from Egypt and of the more important events on the way from that country to Canaan. In the last chapters of Exodus, he recorded details of the construction of the tabernacle, and in Leviticus he wrote out the regulations governing its sacred services. In Exodus (chs 20-24), Leviticus (chs 18-20; 24:10-23), and parts of Deuteronomy he wrote out the civil laws God had given him for Israel. He was also a skilled poet (see Ex 15:1-19; cf. Ps 90). But Moses was more than a gifted writer; he was one of the great leaders and administrators of all time. Under God's direction, he organised Israel as a nation and guided it safely from Egypt to the borders of Canaan. He provided for its civil, judicial, and religious institutions. As a prophet (Deut 18:15), he was the favoured recipient of special communications from God for a period of 40 years, and enjoyed privileges no other man has ever known. To no small degree, the great achievements of the Hebrew nation were the outgrowth of the character, personality, and consecrated life of Moses, who, above all other leaders, bound its families and tribes together as God's chosen people. Abraham was the father of Israel, but Moses was the founder and lawgiver of the nation. God summoned Moses forth from his resting place (see Jude 9), and later honoured him with Elijah on the mount of Transfiguration (Mt 17:3, 4). As lawgiver and leader, Moses surpassed all men of antiquity, but despite his superior talents he was "very meek, above all the men which were upon the face of the earth" (Num 12:3) -- Seventh-day Adventist Bible Dictionary.